Volume 1(2): January, 1996

SPECIFICITY OF TRAINING

This edition of Coaching Science Abstracts reviews articles concerned with the Principle of Specificity as it applies to training. The general thesis is that the most important form of training for elite athletes is that which matches the biomechanics, energy system use, and psychological control factors of an intended competitive performance. However, it is recognized that such training cannot be endured for extended periods. Its best use in an annual plan is in the latter part of the specific preparatory phase of training and during the competition phase.

The articles represented in this issue serve as a scientific basis for not recommending cross or auxiliary training as an avenue for improving elite athletes' performances. By contrast, two articles using normal individuals as subjects do demonstrate a fitness effect from cross training.

It should be understood that a strong emphasis on specific training is appropriate for elite and mature athletes, a programming emphasis which is directly opposite that which is desirable for young and developing athletes. It would not be beneficial to overemphasize this form of training to the detriment of variety and general capacity training in youngsters.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

  1. TRAINING SPECIFICITY

    Alcevedo, E. O., & Goldfarb, A. H. (1989). Increased training intensity effects on plasma lactate, ventilatory threshold, and endurance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 21, 563-568.

  2. TRAINING SPECIFICITY - NO VALUE IN WEIGHTS

    Bell, G. J., Petersen, S. R., Quinney, A. H., & Wenger, H. A. (1989). The effect of velocity-specific strength training on peak torque and anaerobic rowing power. Journal of Sports Sciences, 7, 205-214.

  3. THEORY BEHIND SPECIFICITY

    Stegeman, J. (translated by J. S. Skinner). (1981) Exercise physiology. Chicago, IL: Year Book Medical Publishers (p. 267).

  4. A SUMMARY OF SPECIFICITY

    Rushall Thoughts, 1992.

  5. THE FUTILITY OF AUXILIARY EXERCISES

    De Boer, R. W., Ettema, G. J., Faessen, B. G., Krekels, H., Hollander, A. P., De Groot, G., & Van Ingen Schenau, G. J. (1987). Specific characteristics of speed skating: implications for summer training. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 19, 504-510.

  6. DESIGN OF SPECIFIC TRAINING REPETITIONS

    International Center for Aquatic Research. (1988). Interval training design. The Coaches' Newsletter of United States Swimming, 4(5).

  7. RESISTANCE TRAINING AND SWIMMING

    Toussaint, H. M., & Vervoorn, K. (1990). Effects of specific high resistance training in the water on competitive swimmers. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 11, 228-23.

  8. LAND AND WATER STRENGTH TRAINING

    Bulgakova, N. Z., Vorontsov, A. R., & Fomichenko, T. G. (1987). Improving the technical preparedness of young swimmers by using strength training. Theory and Practice of Physical Culture, 7, 31-33.

  9. ALTERATIONS IN TECHNIQUE RESULTING FROM TRAINING "EXERCISES"

    Maglischo, E. W., Maglischo, C. W., Zier, D. J., & Santos, T. R. (1985). The effects of sprint-assisted and sprint-resisted swimming on stroke mechanics. Journal of Swimming Research, 1, 27-33.

  10. TESTING SWIMMING STRENGTH, POWER, AND SPEED

    Costill, D. L., King, D. S., Holdren, A., & Hargreaves, M. (1983). Sprint speed vs. swimming power. Swimming Technique, May-July, 20-22.

  11. EVENT SPECIFICITY AND IMPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING

    Troup, J. P. (Ed.). (1990). Energy contributions of competitive freestyle events. In International Center for Aquatic Research annual: Studies by the International Center for Aquatic Research 1989-90. Colorado Springs, CO: United States Swimming Press.

  12. FAILURE OF STRENGTH TRAINING TO IMPROVE THROWING VELOCITY

    Bloomfield, J., Blanksby, B. A., Ackland, T. R., & Allison, G. T. (1990). The influence of strength training on overhead throwing velocity of elite water polo players. Australian Journal of Since and Medicine in Sport, 22(3), 63-67.

  13. SPECIFIC TRAINING EFFECTS IN SWIMMING

    Kame, V. D., Pendergast, D. R., & Termin, B. (1990). Physiologic responses to high intensity training in competitive university swimmers. Journal of Swimming Research, 6(4), 5-8.

  14. SPECIFIC EFFECTS OF ADAPTATION RESULTING FROM TRAINING ON DIFFERENT FORMS OF SWIMMING EXERCISE EQUIPMENT

    Sexsmith, J. R., Oliver, M. L., & Johnson-Bos, J. M. (1992). Acute responses to surgical tubing and biokinetic swim bench interval exercise. Journal of Swimming Research, 8, 5-10.

  15. SPECIFICITY OF SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY TESTING

    Beneke, R., Hofmann, C., Strauss, N., Hartwig, F., Hoffmann, K., & Behn, C. (1993). Maximal lactate steady state depends on sports discipline. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25(5), Supplement abstract 365.

  16. A QUESTION THAT EVALUATES SPECIFICITY

    Rushall Thoughts, 1994.

  17. TYPES OF SWIMMING TRAINING AT ODDS WITH EACH OTHER -- WHICH IS BEST?

    Payne, W. R., & Lemon, P. W. R. (1982, October). Metabolic comparison of tethered and simulated swimming ergometer exercise. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Association of Sports Sciences, Victoria, British Columbia.

  18. FEATURES OF THE SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLE

    Heusner, W. (no date). Specificity of interval training. Unpublished manuscript, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI (p. 13).

  19. TRAINING AND ANAEROBIC CAPACITY

    Pizza, F. X., Holtz, R. W., Mitchell, J. B., Gast, L., Starling, R. D., Braun, T. A., & Forrest, M. (1994). Anaerobic capacity: influence of training status. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 600.

  20. TRAINING SPECIFICITY -- NO BENEFITS OF UNDER- AND OVERLOAD STIMULI

    Bauer, K., Sale, D. G., Zehr, E. P., & Moroz, J. S. (1994). Under- and over-load training effects on ballistic elbow extension performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 631.

  21. PHYSIOLOGICAL DETERMINANTS NOT ALL THAT IMPORTANT IN SLALOM PADDLING

    Kearney, J. T., McDowell, S., Litschert, J., & Fleck, S. (1994). Physiological determinants of performance is slalom paddling. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 670.

  22. CROSS TRAINING NO DIFFERENT TO SPECIFIC TRAINING

    Flynn, M. G., Carroll, K. K., Hall, H. L., Kooiker, B. A., Weideman, C. A., Kasper, C. M., & Brollinson, P. G. (1994). Cross training, indices of training stress and performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 858.

  23. SPECIFICITY OF TRAINING EFFECTS

    Mahler, D., Andrea, B., & Ward, J. (1987). Comparison of exercise performance on rowing and cycle ergometer. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 58, 41-46.

  24. SPECIFICITY OF ENDURANCE TRAINING

    Noakes, T. (1986). Lore of running. Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press.

  25. THE SPECIFICITY OF MOTOR ABILITIES

    Fleishman, E. A. (1958). An analysis of positioning movements and static reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55, 213-246.

  26. RUNNING PREDICTS RUNNING BETTER THAN PHYSIOLOGY

    Noakes, T. D., Myburgh, K. H., & Schall, R. (1990). Peak treadmill running velocity during VO2max test predicts running performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 8, 35-45.

  27. RUNNING IN DIFFERENT MEDIUMS ELICITS DIFFERENT PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES

    Town, G. P., & Bradley, S. S. (1991). Maximal metabolic responses of deep and shallow water running in trained runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 23, 238-241.

  28. SPECIFICITY OF THE TAPER - RUSSIAN MARATHONERS

    Velikorodnih, Y., Kozmin, R., Konovalov, V., & Nechaev, V. (1986). The marathon (precompetitive preparation). Soviet Sport Review, 22(3), 125-128.

  29. SUGGESTED READING

    Rushall, B. S., & Pyke, F. S. (1990). Training for sports and physical fitness. Melbourne, Australia: Macmillan Educational.

  30. CROSS-TRAINING IN SPORTS

    Loy, S. F., Hoffmann, J. J., & Holland, G. J. (1995). Benefits and practical use of cross training in sports. Sports Medicine, 19, 1-8.

  31. HARNESS TO IMPROVE RUNNING SPEED NOT BENEFICIAL

    Macaulay, M. R., Keener, J. R., & Rothenberger, R. (1995). Effect of overspeed harness supported treadmill training on running economy and performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 136.

  32. RANGE OF TRAINING LOADS ON BALLISTIC PERFORMANCE

    Bauer, K., Sale, D. G., Zehr, E. P., & Moroz, J. S. (1995). Under- and over-load training effects on ballistic elbow extension performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 126.

  33. ROLLER SKI, RUNNING TREADMILL, AND RACE PERFORMANCES

    Hill, M. R., Osbeck, J. S., Amico, V. J., & Rundell, K. W. (1995). Predictability of roller ski race time in elite female biathletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 589.

  34. ROLLER SKI AND RUNNING TREADMILL PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIABLES NOT RELATED

    Hill, M. R., Gregory, R. W., Amico, V. J., Osbeck, J. S., Goodwin, G. T., & Rundell, K. W. (1995). Differences in physiological parameters between treadmill running and treadmill roller skiing in nordic skiers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 590.

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