This section of the Swimming Science Journal contains abstracts of articles concerned with hydrodynamic characteristics of and forces in swimming. As articles are located they are abstracted and appended to the end of the list.

1. TEACHING THE "WAVE" BREASTSTROKE

   Muckenfuss, M. (1990). Catching the wave. Swimming Technique,August-October, 11-12.

2. SHAVING REDUCES THE PHYSIOLOGICAL COST OF SWIMMING

   Sharp, R. L., & Costill, D. L. (1990). Shaving a little time. Swimming Technique, November 1989-January 1990, 10-13.

3. BETTER TO SWIM ON THE SURFACE THAN UNDERWATER

   Jiskoot, J. & Clarys, J. P. (1988). Body resistance on and under the water surface. In J. Terauds & W. Bedingfield (Eds.), International series on sport sciences, SWIMMING III, Vol. 8. Baltimore: University Park Press.

4. PADDLES CHANGE SWIMMING TECHNIQUE

   Toussaint, H. M., Janssen, T., & Kluft, M. (1989). The influence of paddles on propulsion. Swimming Technique, August-October, 28-32.

5. PASSIVE DRAG SHOULD BE CONSIDERED IN TECHNIQUE WORK

   Chatard, J. C., Lavoie, J. M., Bourgoin, B., & Lacour, J. R. (1990). The contribution of passive drag as a determinant of swimming performance. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 11, 367-372.

6. SHAVING REDUCES ACTIVE DRAG

   Sharp, R. L., & Costill, D. L. (1989). Influence of body hair removal on physiological responses during breaststroke swimming. Medicine and Science in Exercise and Sports, 21, 576-580.

7. NEWTON'S LAWS ARE BETTER THAN BERNOULLI'S THEORY FOR UNDERSTANDING SWIMMING

   Sprigings, E. J., & Koehler, J. A. (1990). The choice between Bernoulli's or Newton's Model in predicting dynamic lift. International Journal of Sport Biomechanics, 6, 235-245.

8. GROWTH FACTORS SIGNIFICANTLY INFLUENCE AGE-GROUP PERFORMANCE

   Toussaint, H. M., de Looze, M., van Rossem, B., Leijdekkers, M., & Dignum, H. (1990). The effect of growth on drag in young swimmers. The Journal of Sport Biomechanics, 6, 18-28.

9. BODY COMPOSITION IS IMPORTANT FOR FEMALES BUT NOT MALES

   Siders, W. A., Lukaski, H. C., & Bolonchuk, W. W. (1993). Relationships among swimming performance, body composition and somatotype in competitive collegiate swimmers. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 33, 166-171.

10. SHOULDER FLEXIBILITY CAN REDUCE FORM DRAG

    Chatard, J. C. Bourgoin, B., & Lacour, J. R. (1990). Passive drag is still a good evaluator of swimming aptitude. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 59, 399-404.

11. FRONTAL SURFACE AREA IS DIFFICULT TO ESTIMATE

    Cappaert, J. M., Gordon, B. J., & Frisbie, K. (1997). Frontal surface area measurements in national caliber swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 29(5), Supplement abstract 712.

12. THREE IMPORTANT FACTORS IN SWIMMING

    Wakayoshi, K., D'Acquisto, L. J., Cappaert,, J. M., & Troup, J. P. (1995). Relationship between oxygen uptake, stroke rate and swimming velocity in competitive swimming. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 16, 19-23.

13. MODELING SWIMMING ENERGY SYSTEM USE STILL HAS A LONG WAY TO GO

    Toussaint, H. M., Wakayoshi, K., Hollander, A. P., & Ogita, F. (1998). Simulated front crawl swimming performance related to critical speed and critical power. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30, 144-151.

14. SWIMMING PROPULSION IS MAINLY DRAG FORCE

    Rushall, B. S., Sprigings, E. J., Holt, L. E., & Cappaert, J. M. (1994). A re-evaluation of forces in swimming. Journal of Swimming Research, 10, 6-30.

15. WHAT CURVED PATH OF CRAWL STROKE HAND PATTERNS?

    Hay, J. G., Liu, Q., & Andrews, J. G. (1993). The influence of body roll on hand path in freestyle swimming: A computer simulation study. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 9, 227-237.

16. DRAG FORCES PREDOMINATE OVER LIFT FORCES IN EFFECTIVE PROPULSION

    Sanders, R. H. (1997a). Extending the 'Schleihauf' model for estimating forces produced by a swimmer's hand. In B. O. Eriksson & L. Gullstrand, (Eds), Proceedings of the XII FINA World Congress on Sports Medicine (pp. 421-428). Goteborg, Sweden: Chalmers Reproservice.

    Sanders, R. H. (1997b). Hydrodynamic characteristics of a swimmer's hand with adducted thumb: Implications for technique. In B. O. Eriksson & L. Gullstrand, (Eds), Proceedings of the XII FINA World Congress on Sports Medicine (pp. 429-434). Goteborg, Sweden: Chalmers Reproservice.

17. DRAFTING BEHIND ANOTHER SWIMMER IMPROVES PERFORMANCE AND CONSERVES ENERGY

    Chatard, J.C., Chollet, D., & Millet, G. (1998). Performance and drag during drafting swimming in highly trained triathletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30(8), 1276-1280.

18. MALE BUOYANCY CHARACTERISTICS ARE NOT RELATED TO KICKING DIFFERENCES WHEN COMPARED TO FEMALES

    McLean, S.P., & Hinrichs, R.N. (1998). Sex differences in the center of buoyancy location of competitive swimmers. Journal of Sports Science, 16(4), 373-383.

19. WETSUITS AND FLOATATION EFFECTS ON SWIMMING SPEED

    Cordain, L., & Kopriva, R. (1991). Wetsuits, body density, and swimming performance. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 25, 31-33.

20. WHY LIFT IS UNIMPORTANT IN SWIMMING PROPULSION

    Knapek, M. (May 27, 2001). Why lift is unimportant in swimming propulsion. Personal communication.

21. WHY FISH SWIM SO WELL AND ITS RELEVANCE TO SWIMMING

    Knapek, M. (May 25, 2002). Why fish swim so well and its relevance to swimming. Personal communication.

22. SLEEVELESS WETSUITS ARE BEST

    Nicolaou, K. D., Kozusko, J. M., & Bishop, P. A. (2001). The effect of wetsuits on swim performance. Journal of Swimming Research, 15, 20-26.

23. BODYSUITS ARE OF NEGLIGIBLE BENEFIT TO MALE SWIMMERS

    Smith, J. W., Molloy, J. M., & Pascoe, D. D. (2003). The efficacy of body suits at reducing drag and oxygen cost in competitive swimming. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 35(5), Supplement abstract 537.

24. WETSUITS IMPROVE VELOCITY AT SUBMAXIMAL SWIMMING

    Tomikawa, M., & Nomura, T. (2004). The effects of triathlon wetsuits on physiological responses and stroke parameters during submaximal swimming. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 36(5), Supplement abstract 1150.

25. FLUME SWIMMING IS EASIER AND ALTERS STROKE TECHNIQUE

    Rudiger, R. Wenzel, P., Rudolph, K., Zielger, M., von Duvillard, S. P., & Braumann, K. M. (2005). Physiological response to swimming in the flume and the pool. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 37(5), Supplement abstract 2174.

26. BODYSUITS DO NOT PRODUCE ANY SIGNIFICANT ADVANTAGE FOR SWIMMERS WHEN RACING

    Matsunami, M., & Taimura, A. (2007). Influences of swimsuit design on swimming performance in competitive female swimmers. ACSM Annual Meeting New Orleans, Presentation Number 1431.

27. FASTSKIN SUITS DO NOT HELP PERFORMANCE

    Toussaint, H. M., Truijens, M., Elzinga, M.-J., van de Ven, A., de Best, H., Snabel, B., & de Groot, G. (2002). Effect of a FASTSKIN™ 'body' suit on drag during front crawl swimming. Sport Biomechanics. 1, 1-10.

28. PASSIVE DRAG REDUCTION IS ASSISTED BY BODYSUITS

    Mollendorf, J. C., Termin, A. C., Oppenheim, E., & Pendergast, D. R. (2004). Effect of swim suit design on passive drag. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 36, 1029-1035.

29. FASTSKIN SUITS REDUCE PASSIVE DRAG IN TOWED GLIDE AND KICKING ACTIVITIES

    Benjanuvatra, N., Dawson, G., Blanksby, B. A., Elliott, B. C. (2002). Comparison of buoyancy, passive and net active drag forces between Fastskin and standard swimsuits. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 5, 115-123.

30. FASTSKIN BODYSUITS DO NOT ASSIST SWIMMERS WHEN PERFORMING FULL STROKES

    Roberts, B. S., Kamel, K. S., Hedrick, C. E., McLean, S. P., & Sharp, R. L. (2003). Effect of a FastSkin™ suit on submaximal freestyle swimming. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 35, 519-524.

31. COVERING THE TORSO ALTERS THE ENERGY DEMAND OF CRAWL STROKE SWIMMING WHEN UNSHAVEN

    Starling, R. D., Costill, D. L., Trappe, T. A., Jozsi, A. C., Trappe, S. W., & Goodpaster, B. H. (1995). Effect of swimming suit design on the energy demands of swimming. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 27, 1086-1089.

32. BODYSUITS IMPROVE PERFORMANCE – OR DO THEY?

    Chatard, J.-C., & Wilson, B. (2008). Effect of fastskin suits on performance, drag, and energy cost of swimming. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 40, 1149-1154.

33. THUMB POSITION DOES NOT AFFECT THE HAND'S DRAG FORCE

    Marinho, D. A., Reis, V. M., Alves, F. B., Vilas-Boas, J. P., Machado, L., Rouboa, A. I., & Silva, A. J. (2008). The influence of the thumb position in the propulsive force production in swimming. ACSM 55th Annual Meeting Indianapolis, Presentation Number 725.

34. HAND/FOREARM PROPULSION BEST AT 90º TO THE LINE OF PROGRESSION

    Silva, A. J., Marinho, D. A., Reis, V. M., Alves, F. B., Vilas-Boas, J. P., Machado, L., & Rouboa, A. I. (2008). Study of the propulsive potential of the hand and forearm in swimming. ACSM 55th Annual Meeting Indianapolis, Presentation Number 1436.

35. THEORETICAL SKIN DRAG IS MINOR COMPARED TO FORM DRAG

    Novais, L., Marinho, D. A., Reis, V. M., Marquest, M. C., Costa, A. M., Sousa, L. S., Alves, F. B., Vilas-Boas, J. ., Machado, L., Rouboa, A. I., & Silva, A. J. (2009). Contribution of form drag and skin friction drag during swimming gliding. ACSM 56th Annual Meeting, Seattle, Washington. Presentation Number 2558.

36. USA SWIMMING RECORDS HAVE PROCEEDED CONSISTENTLY DESPITE THE INTRODUCTION OF "PERFORMANCE-ENHANCING" SUITS

    Johnson, M. B., Edmonds, W. A., Jain, S., & Cavazos Jr., J. (2009). Analyses of elite swimming performances and their respective between-gender differences over time. Journal of Quantitative Analysis in Sports, 5(4), Article 2, pp. 18.

37. MAD SYSTEM BEST FOR MEASURING ACTIVE DRAG

    Toussaint, H. M., Roos, P. E., & Kolmogorov, S. (2004). The determination of drag in front crawl swimming. Journal of Biomechanics, 37(11), 1655-1663.

38. PROPULSIVE AND RESISTIVE FORCES IN CRAWL STROKE HAVE BEEN QUANTIFIED BUT ARE LIMITED TO ONE MODEL

    Keys, M., Lyttle, A., Blanksby, B. A., & Cheng, L. (2010). A full body computational fluid dynamic analysis of the freestyle stroke of a previous sprint freestyle world record holder. A paper presented at the XIth International Symposium for Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming, Oslo, June 16–19, 2010.

39. FASTSKIN SUITS DID PROVIDE MECHANICAL ASSISTANCE TO SWIMMERS

    Chollet, D., Chavallard, F., Lemaitre, F., & Seifert, L. (2010). Do Fastskin swimsuits influence coordination in front crawl swimming? A paper presented at the XIth International Symposium for Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming, Oslo, June 16–19, 2010.

40. CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH FUNCTIONAL SWIMWEAR (NOW BANNED)

    Gonjo, T., Ichikawa, H., Tsubakimoto, S., & Takagi, H. (2010). A comparison of characteristics of high functional swimwear for competitive swimming. A paper presented at the XIth International Symposium for Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming, Oslo, June 16–19, 2010.

41. 2008 SWIMWEAR PROVIDES AN ADVANTAGE THROUGH DRAG REDUCTION

    Ogita, F., Huang, Z., Kurobe, K., Ozawa, G., Taguchi, N., & Tanaka, T. (2010). Effects of swimwear developed in 2008 on drag during front crawl swimming. A paper presented at the XIth International Symposium for Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming, Oslo, June 16–19, 2010.

42. X-GLIDE SUITS DO NOT INCREASE BUOYANCY

    Cortesi, M., Zamparo, P., Tam, E., Da Boit, M., & Gatta, G. (2010). The effect of wearing a synthetic rubber suit on hydrostatic lift and lung volume. A paper presented at the XIth International Symposium for Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming, Oslo, June 16–19, 2010.

43. DRAG FORCE IS THE MAIN PROPULSIVE FORCE OF THE HAND IN CRAWL STROKE

    Gourgoulis, V., Boli, A., Aggeloussis, N., Toubekis, A. G., Vezos, N., Kasimatis, P., & Mavrommatis, G. (2010). Relative contribution of drag and lift forces in the separate phases of the front crawl swimming. A paper presented at the XIth International Symposium for Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming, Oslo, June 16–19, 2010.

44. AFTER DIVES AND TURNS SWIM DEEP

    Marinho, D. A., Barbosa, T. M., Mantripragada, N., Vilas-Boas, J. P., Rouard, A. H., Mantha, V., Rouboa, A. I., & Silva, A. J. (2010). The gliding phase in swimming: The effect of water depth. A paper presented at the XIth International Symposium for Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming, Oslo, June 16–19, 2010.

45. BLUESEVENTY™ SWIMSUIT SIGNIFICANTLY IMPROVES 50 m PERFORMANCE

    Silveira, R. P., Kanefuku, J. Y., Moré, F. C., & Castro, F. A. (2010). Effects of a Blueseventy™ bodysuit on spatial-temporal and coordinative parameters during an all-out 50-m front crawl stroke. A paper presented at the XIth International Symposium for Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming, Oslo, June 16–19, 2010.

46. HIGH-TECH SWIMSUITS REDUCE PASSIVE DRAG

    Keul, S., Bieder, A., & Wahl, P. (2010). Effects of new high-tech swimsuits on passive drag. A paper presented at the XIth International Symposium for Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming, Oslo, June 16–19, 2010.

47. A DECADE OF SWIMSUIT GENERATIONS INFLUENCED PERFORMANCES

    Berthelot, G., Hellard, P., Len, S., Tafflet, M., & Toussaint, J. F. (2010). Technology and swimming: Three steps beyond physiology. A paper presented at the XIth International Symposium for Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming, Oslo, June 16–19, 2010.

48. PROPELLING EFFICIENCY IS IMPORTANT FOR LONGER CRAWL STROKE EVENTS

    Huang, Z., Kurobe, K., Nishiwaki, M., Ozawa, G., Tanaka, T., Taguchi, N., & Ogita, F. (2010). Relationship between propelling efficiency and swimming performance in elite swimmers. A paper presented at the XIth International Symposium for Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming, Oslo, June 16–19, 2010.

49. NOW-BANNED SWIMSUITS WERE DIFFERENTIALLY POPULAR AMONG MALES

    Neiva, H. P., Vilas-Boas, J. P., Barbosa, T. M., Silva, A. J., & Marinho, D. A. (2010). 13th FINA world championships: analysis of swimsuits used by elite male swimmers. A paper presented at the XIth International Symposium for Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming, Oslo, June 16–19, 2010.

50. PASSIVE DRAG IS AN IMPORTANT DETERMINANT OF SWIMMING PERFORMANCE

    Ribeiro, J., Fernandes, R. J., Machado, L., & Vilas-Boas, J. P. (2011). Hydrodynamic drag characterization of the swimming conventional techniques. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 43(5). Supplement abstract 2320.

51. AUTOMATIC AND MANUAL ESTIMATES OF PASSIVE DRAG DIFFER

    Kjendlie, P.-L., & Olstad, B. H. (2012). Automatic 3D motion capture of swimming: marker resistance. Presentation 1939 at the 59th Annual Meeting of the American College of Sports Medicine, San Francisco, California; May 29-June 2, 2012.

52. SWIMMING ATTRIBUTES PREDICT PERFORMANCES

    Ofoghi, B., Stefano, D., Zeleznikow, J., & McMahon, C. (2012). Modeling relationships between swimming attributes for performance prediction. Presentation 1935 at the 59th Annual Meeting of the American College of Sports Medicine, San Francisco, California; May 29-June 2, 2012.

53. TODAY'S (2012) SWIMSUITS SIMILAR TO 2008 HIGH-TECH SWIMSUITS

    Marinho, D. A., Mantha, V. R., Ramos, R. J., Barbosa, T. M., Vilas-Boas, J. P., Rouboa, A. I., & Silva, A. J. (2012). The effect on swimmer’s hydrodynamic drag wearing two swimsuits. Presentation 1922 at the 59th Annual Meeting of the American College of Sports Medicine, San Francisco, California; May 29-June 2, 2012.

54. DRAG FORCES DECREASE AS DEPTH OF SWIMMING INCREASES

    Tor, E., Pease, D. L., & Ball, K. A. (2015). How does drag affect the underwater phase of a swimming start? Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 31(1), 8-12.

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