Rushall, B. S. (1991). Imagery training in sports. Spring Valley, CA: Sports Science Associates and Belconnen, ACT, Australia: Australian Coaching Council.

The Structure of a Performance-enhancement Imagery Model

The most effective performance imagery will consist of the following features.

• Rehearsing at the intended speed of the performance so that exact motor patterns will be practiced (neuromuscular facilitation will occur).
• Focusing on the most desirable performance aspects in a positive and successful manner.
• Perceiving from an internal perspective emphasizing what the activity feels like and including all other senses as they will occur in the performance (e.g., what will be seen and heard).
• Repeating the imagery a sufficient number of times to satisfy the athlete.
• Imagining the features of the performance environment or looking at the actual arena section where the contest will occur.
• Rehearsing performance units in their entirety.
• Including the thought content of competition strategies.
• Concluding each imagery trial with covert positive reinforcement.

  In order for an athlete to benefit from the use performance enhancement imagery, the features listed above need to be included. Each successful imagery trial should be followed by covert positive reinforcement. The combination of trials and reinforcement is critical for this mental skill to work.

  The implementation of performance enhancement imagery is characterized by the following steps. It is assumed that imagery skills have been learned.

  1. Determine what imagery is to be used.
  2. Determine a variety of covert positive reinforcers.
  3. Determine when the imagery--reinforcement sequences are to occur.
  4. A bout of imagery for each particular activity should follow the order suggested below.
     • i. Rehearse one trial with a concentration on the feel of the activity. Conclude the trial with an instance of CPR.
     • ii. Rehearse one trial with a concentration on the feel of the activity plus all other senses. Conclude the trial with an instance of CPR.
     • iii. Rehearse one trial with a concentration on strategy mental content plus all senses. Conclude the trial with an instance of CPR.
     • iv. Repeat substep iii until the athlete decides to terminate the imagined activity.
  5. Progress to the next activity and repeat substeps i. through iv.
  6. Keep progressing through the predetermined activities until the session is completed.
  7. Conclude the session with a major emphasis on CPR.

  As with all imagery, control and vividness are essential for the procedure to be effective. The inclusion of performance enhancement imagery as part of the pre-competition preparation strategy means that it should be performed in conjunction with other activities, particularly physical work. The correct execution of this form of imagery is a learned skill and needs practice and guidance before it can be effectively employed.

  Performance enhancement imagery should be rehearsed on a daily basis prior to the day of a competition for periods of time that are determined by the athlete. The day before or on the day of the competition the volume of rehearsal should increase markedly to at least five times that of the preceding days. This form of imagery serves as a procedure to improve an individual's focus of attention on an impending performance as the time for competing nears. It also contributes to an increase in performance readiness and positive thinking.

  The development of performance enhancement imagery is assisted by using structured preparatory materials. A suggested preparation sheet is provided and described in Imagery training in sports.

  The sheet is divided into sections which are meant to cue the athlete to consider all the features that are important for performance enhancement imagery. The entries should be such that the athlete has sufficient detail to totally focus his/her attention during a rehearsal trial.

  1. The "Performance unit/segment" section requires entries that satisfy the stipulations contained in the "6. Rehearse performance units in their entirety" discussion. The athlete should describe the entire segment, its phases (if any), and segment goals.
  2. The "Speed of movement" section relates to the "1. Rehearse at the intended speed of the performance" discussion. The entry should include a description of how long each rehearsal trial will take.
  3. The "Feelings/senses" entries require one to determine the sensory features of the type described in the "3. Imagery should be performed from an internal perspective" discussion. All feelings and other sensory experiences should be listed in as much detail as possible.
  4. The "Environmental features" entries should be in accordance with the outlined features of "5. Imagine in the performance environment". Only those items which are associated with performance should be listed. For example, a swimmer would list the type and spacing of the lane markers, the pool bottom markings and how they will be used to cue performance (e.g., the distance from the turning wall determines how many strokes will be taken), the proximity of other competitors, and where the time clock is situated. Irrelevant features, such as crowds, officials, architectural and natural features should not be considered.
  5. The "Strategy content" section requires the technical, mood words, and positive self-statements entries of the performance unit/segment to be entered (see "7. The inclusion of strategy mental content"). The important performance factors should be listed here. It should comprise the entire set of essential features. If necessary features are omitted, the imagery will be incomplete and therefore, inefficient. Only positive and constructive items should be considered.
  6. The "Positive/successful outcomes" entries require the recording of the concurrent indices and consequences of anticipated successful performances as stipulated in "2. Imagery must be positive and successful". The features that will occur during and after a successful real-life performance should be planned or anticipated. Their integration into the imagery sequence will ensure a positive atmosphere in the rehearsal trial.
  7. The "Repetitions" section requires the entry of the anticipated amount of rehearsal and when that rehearsal is to be done (see "4. Rehearsal repetitions"). An accentuated amount should be planned for the period before a competition.

  Each of the entries is accompanied by an "Associated Physical Activities" section. What is required to complete that unit is for the athlete to record whether he/she will do the rehearsal while being physically active. For example, a rower getting ready for a race may rehearse while running as part of a warm-up. If that individual were focusing on the arm movement of the sweep-oar action, then the running arm action would be altered to exhibit some of the rowing arm action. The resulting performance may appear odd to an observer, but that compromising feature is an index of the focus, vividness, and control of the imagery. Thus, the athlete needs to plan whether the imagery is or is not associated with some physical activities and what are the movements that result from the imagery practice.

  The final part of the sheet requires some positive consequences to be defined and incorporated into the performance imagery package. This is done in much the same manner as was described for learning imagery and CPR.

  It should be noted that one page is allocated to each segment of a total performance. In events where a number of segments are developed, the performance enhancement imagery plans will comprise a number of pages to accommodate the multiple segment structure. This may seem like a lot of work for an athlete but it is required to obtain the maximum amount of performance enhancement possible.

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