Cautela, J. R., & Kearney, A. J. (1986). The covert conditioning handbook. New York, NY: Springer (pp. 31-38)

Covert positive reinforcement (CPR) is a technique in which an individual imaginatively reinforces him/herself immediately after performing a desired behavior in real-life or imagery. It is imperative to use CPR if behavior change is to be effected. Without reinforcement behaviors will not be altered consistently, predictably, or to any significant degree.

1. CPR is used to increase the likelihood of performing a behavior.
2. The imagination of positive scenes/behaviors and consequences should be combined in the same paradigm structure as used in overt operant conditioning.
3. Chains of behaviors can be constructed using CPR for complex behavior sequences. Normally, the progression for such scenes would be in reverse order (i.e., backward chaining).
4. CPR is the covert analog of overt operant conditioning including emotional components. Emotions in imagery should be encouraged.
   • Instructions to develop CPR have been successfully adapted to audiotapes.
   • Relaxation is not an integral feature of the technique. It need only be used with anxious individuals or in early instruction as a means to facilitate image clarity and control. Studies have shown that relaxation is not necessarily helpful but it certainly does not hinder a procedure.
   • CPR is just as effective as systematic desensitization although the two have different procedural steps and features.
   • When using CPR in covert modeling and imagery, an operant conditioning explanation more fully accounts for results than does a counterconditioning explanation.

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